Specisism

In this essay I will try to clarify Singers essential argument and defend it against some common objections. According to Singer, Speciesism is a position similar to racism and sexism. Just as race discriminates against other race, and sexism against the opposite sex, speciesism discriminates against non-human species. Specisists hold that only humans have intrinsic moral worth, and anything that is non-human has no rights and so for Singer, speciesism is not an acceptable position.He argues that because animals are capable of experiencing pain, and therefore have an interest in preserving themselves, they deserve to be respected and given rights. Singer is a utilitarian which means for him the capacity to feel pleasure and pain is the most important factor for moral consideration. If a being has the capacity to feel pain and pleasure, then Singer thinks we have a responsibility towards them.He rejects moral rights as inherent to every species and proposes that sentience is a require ment for status since he maintains most animals do not care about whether we kill them and use them for our own purposes: they care only about how we treat them when we do use and kill them. Just like humans, animals have interests of their own, a capacity for enjoying things and also for suffering.And â€Å"if a being suffers, there can be no moral justification for refusing to take that suffering into consideration† (Singer 1975:79) Given the principle of equal consideration of interests, it follows that equal moral concern should be given to the suffering of animals as that of humans. â€Å"If only x and y would be affected by a possible action, and if x stands to lose more than y gains, it is better not to do the act† (PE, p21).If this is the case, then suffering caused to animals as a result of their treatment when we regard treating humans in the same way most count as ‘specisist` behaviour : the only difference between humans and animals is their species, and that has the same moral significance as race i. e. , none. Singer argues for this by pointing to variation among human.Of the characteristics that we say only humans share we always find that there are humans who lack those characteristics: â€Å"†¦ Humans come in different shapes and sizes; they come with differing moral capabilities, differing intellectual abilities, differing amounts of benevolent feeling and sensitivity to the needs of others, differing capacities to experience pleasure and pain.In short, if the demand for equality were based on actual equality of all human being, we would have to stop demanding equality. † The only one characteristic all human beings share that animals do not is membership in the human species. It is important to note that Singer does not mention animals when he speaks of the principle of equality or equal consideration of interests, but reminds us the principle is interpreted as giving equal consideration to the interests of al l people.Firstly reminds us of the challenges we have overcome throughout history with racism and sexism have expanded our moral horizons which eventually includes the whole human race, and secondly, that following this to its logical conclusion, morality itself demands this extension since the basic principle of equality is a principle of morality. Once we go beyond a self-interested stand point to a moral one, we are bound to adopt the principle of equality and the logic of universality inherent in it. Singer is a utilitarian thinker.A basic objection to this is that the whole structure of Singers view is utilitarian, that on the one hand, it demeans our existence by saying happiness is the only thing of value in it, and on the other hand, it aims to maximise the total happiness, which allows the sacrifice of the happiness of a minority for the sake of the majority. So there are really two objections here, one to Singers account of value (that reduces all value to happiness), and the other, his account of morality (that makes the ends justify the means).Both of which are mistaken, the maximising theory of morality in Singers view does not depend on a maximizing account of morality at all, it depends on ‘the principle of equality` where he does not talk about value but only says that all sentient beings interests should be considered equally, and that the interests of a being in this case is in the reduction of its suffering, and that its total suffering is to be weighed against the benefits of all beings involved. He does not actually claim that animal lives are equally valuable.Singer holds that animals suffer and like us they have interests, he views the specisist as holding a similar position as a racist or sexist. He considers them equal in the sense that they all think that they have a higher moral status simply in virtue of their sex and race. Each of the instances he describes when drawing parallels between sexism, racism, and spieciesism, the d ominant group exploits or excludes outsiders indiscriminately in favour of its own members. It develops an ideology that justifies treating outsiders in ways that are to its benefit.Form this point of view, the analogy between sexism racism, and speciesism directs our thoughts to the human being as the dominating group that uses other beings for its own ends and not only beings that matter. The analogy is useful because it leads us to humans, not as the only beings who matter, but a dominating group that uses other beings for its own ends, furthermore, it raises questions about mere differences as the justification for differences in how much consideration to give others.Bernard Williams, however, defends speciesism in â€Å"The Human Prejudice† objects to Singers analogy, that speciesism is not like racism or sexism, and gives some reasons why this is so. The differences between normal humans and other non-human animals, let’s say, of equal size or shape, are much gre ater than the differences between people of different races, or between men and women.But Singer has mentioned this, in his first edition of animal liberation he wrote: â€Å"There are many areas in which the superior mental powers of normal adult humans make a difference: anticipation, more detailed memory, and greater knowledge of what is happening, and so on. † So therefore the claim that speciesism is morally objectionable still remains unchanged by such arguments, because Singer defines speciesism as discrimination on the basis or species, not as discrimination on the basis of superior mental powers, even if those powers are processed by members of our species and not members of other species.According to Singer, Williams’ argument denies the analogy and resorts to â€Å"which side are you on? ’’ – Which is a question that echoes racial, religious or ideological conflicts which have arisen in times of war? This kind of question divides the wo rld in to â€Å"us’’ and â€Å"them’’, the fact of this division demands us to us to transcend ethical issues about what the right thing to do is.Singer mentions another argument that has been made in connection to this in defence of speciesism: the claim that just as parents prefer their own children over others as a special obligation, so we have a special obligation to other members of our species in preference to members of other species. Again, the obvious case lying between the ‘family` and our ‘own`, points to race, ethnicity, etc. Singer gives a good example by referring to Lewis Petrinovich who says that our biology turns certain boundaries into moral imperatives- and lists â€Å"children, kin, neighbours, and species. If the argument works at the smaller sphere of family and the larger sphere of species, then why not for the middle case: race. If race is not a morally relevant boundary, why should species be? It is tautological th at the principle of equality should apply to sentient beings. There is much debate over what qualifies as sentient. What I mean sentient to be, can only be worked out in practise as with any other moral boundary. Man here has to be thought of as a moral agent as well as a moral object.I don’t believe we should justify our having a bias or prejudice in favour of human beings over other animals, I would consider it specisist to consider the interests of my own over other species, only in the strictest sense, but if this is the case, I would also favour my own race, religion, class, etc†¦ Our values are necessarily human values but we are not necessarily the only beings worthy of consideration. Nature sustains both animals and humans and for me, complimenting nature, at the very least, preserving it, is more worthy of consideration.Bibliography Practical Ethincs, Peter Singer The Human Prejudice, Bernard Williams

Empathy in ‘To Kill a Mockingbird’ Essay

In the novel ‘To Kill A Mockingbird’ by Harper Lee, learning to â€Å"walk about in someone’s skin† is a main theme, particularly as two of the main protagonists Jem and Scout learn to do this as they grow up throughout the book along with the reader. Atticus, the children’s father, educates the children on how to treat and comprehend other people. As Jem and Scout grow older in the novel, they begin to understand this lesson and act upon it both knowingly and sub-consciously. Scout empathises with Walter Cunningham during school at the beginning of the book. When her teacher, Miss Caroline offers Walter a quarter because he has no lunch (Walter’s family can not afford it and so he says he’s forgotten it) and refuses it, Miss Caroline can not see why and so continues to offer it with growing impatience. Scout empathises with how Walter is feeling at the time and so on his behalf explains why he has no lunch and why he will not accept her offer; â€Å"The Cunninghams never took anything they can’t pay back – no church baskets and no scrip stamps. They never took anything off of anybody, they get along on what they have. They don’t have much but they get along on it.† She did this to spare his embarrassment. Scout goes on to say, â€Å"You’re shamin’ him, Miss Caroline.† This shows her understanding of Walter’s perspective at that time and also how she tries to spare him by explaining to t he teacher. Early on in the book, Jem can already step into someone else’s shoes and empathise with them to see their perspective. The reader knows this when Jem confronts Scout after she beats up Walter Cunningham at school and he says, â€Å"Come on home to dinner with us Walter.† This shows Jem’s maturity and ability to empathise with those around him as he knows that what Scout did to Walter was wrong and he was able to see this by looking at it from Walter’s perspective. He also defends Walter when Scout wants to fight him. Scout says, â€Å"I stomped at him to chase him away, but Jem put out his hand and stopped me†. By also having a sense of initiative and good morals, Jem knows to invite Walter back to the house with them for dinner to apologise and show courtesy towards him. Also, Jem knows that Walter will have no dinner that day and that the Cunninghams would not accept anything they couldn’t pay back. He also knows that his family couldn’t afford to eat as  well as the Finches. By empathising with Walter, he sees how hungry he must be and so invites him to eat with them. Scout shows empathy for Jem by voluntarily accompanying him to read to Mrs Dubose when he is made to do so after destroying her flowers because she said horrible things about Atticus. For Scout, Mrs Dubose is a distressing object who then becomes the power over her afternoons forcing her and Jem to read to her. Scout decides to go with Jem a she knew he didn’t want to do it as Jem says, â€Å"Atticus, it’s all right on the sidewalk but inside it’s – it’s all dark and creepy. There’s shadows and things on the ceiling†¦Ã¢â‚¬  She goes with him even though she doesn’t like Mrs Dubose because she knows that Jem wouldn’t want to be alone reading to her and so Scout thinks it would be better if she goes along. Scout also sympathises and shows empathy for Mrs Dubose, despite her feelings toward her. She says, â€Å"I felt sorry for her. She was lying under a pile of quilts and looked almost friendly.† This shows Scout empathising with Mrs Dubose as she sees that she is ill, and can see how much pain she must be in. However, it’s not until after she dies that both Scout and Jem fully understand how Mrs Dubose must have been feeling: Mrs Dubose was a morphine addict who was determined to kick the habit before she died and so enlisted Jem and Scout to help keep her off of the morphine for longer and longer periods of time (without them knowing). Atticus wants them to empathise with her so they can see how much courage she had and learn â€Å"what real courage is, instead of getting the idea that courage is a man with a gun in his hand.† They both begin to understand why she was the way she was and see that she was actually a â€Å"great lady†, â€Å"had her own views about things† and died â€Å"beholden to nothing and nobody.† The reader sees that Jem in particular empathises with her at the very end of the chapter when Scout says, â€Å"He picked up the camellia, and when I went off to bed I saw him fingering the wide petals.† This shows that Jem was now beginning to understand and think about Mrs Dubose in a new light and he could now see her perspective. She was not just a bitter old lady. She was a courageous woman who stuck to her opinions right to the end and was determined to be rid of her morphine addiction before she died. Later in the novel when both the children have matured since the beginning, Scout has found herself involved in the ladies meeting by Aunt Alexandra and realises what it is like to be a lady. After hearing the horrid announcement of Tom Robinson’s death, Scout sees how affected by the news Aunt Alexandra is she till retains her lady-like manners as she has company. Scout thinks, â€Å"After all, if Aunty could be a lady at a time like this, so could I.† Scout allows herself to place others’ problems and emotions into her own perspective and as a result enhances her own actions with those who were affected. Jem not only learns to empathise with people throughout the novel but also other living beings. When Scout is about to kill a roly-poly (an insect), Jem says, â€Å"Don’t do that, Scout. Set him out on the back steps.† He does this because â€Å"they don’t bother you† so Jem knows that they are no harm and killing them would be wrong. This shows that his understanding of empathy has deepened. Finally, Scout empathises with Boo Radley by the end of the novel. Even before Boo Radley saves them, Scout begins feeling guilty about the way they had treated Boo Radley in the past summers; â€Å"I sometimes felt a twinge of remorse when passing by the old Radley place, at ever having taken part in what must have been sheer torment to Arthur Radley – what reasonable recluse wants children peeping in through his shutters, delivering greetings at the end of a fishing pole, wandering in his collards at night.† She understands how Boo Radley feels. After being rescued, she begins to start empathising with Boo without even realising; â€Å"Feeling slightly unreal, I led him to the chair farthest from Atticus and Mr. Tate. It was in a deep shadow. Boo would feel more comfortable in the dark.† She is thinking about what Boo Radley would like and feel more comfortable with, rather than thinking about things just from her view. After standing on Boo Radley’s porch after walking him home, Scout mentally imagines what Boo had seen all these years through the window. She realises she understands that â€Å"Atticus was right. One time he said, you never really know a man until you stand in his shoes and walk around in them. Just standing on the Radley porch was enough.† Boo Radley’s  world was everything outside his four walls. With this final insight of human nature, Scout has learnt what Atticus had been teaching her throughout the novel. Harper Lee’s novel ‘To kill a Mockingbird’ illustrates how to â€Å"walk about in someone’s skin† through the protagonists Scout and Jem as they learn this lesson along with the reader. As their understanding grows – in particular Scout’s as she is the narrator – the reader’s understanding also grows as when the children learn and understand something, we also do. If we could get more people to empathise with others like both Scout and Jem in the novel, we could eliminate the prejudice that still exists in the modern world. Having Jem and Scout grow up during the book make them characters that we can empathise with and so helps enforce the lesson that Harper Lee wanted to communicate to the reader. If everybody did finally â€Å"climb into his skin and walk around in it† then maybe we could understand that we have more in common with all types of people regardless of race, nationality, gender etc. Referring to what Atticus says at the end of the book, most people are nice â€Å"when you finally see them†.

Leadership, Teambuilding, and Communication Term Paper

Leadership, Teambuilding, and Communication - Term Paper Example Analysis of the organizational stressors Research establishes that an organization will perform under perform positive and negative motivation factors accordingly. However, variations occur on the extent at quality of performance becomes a necessity. While under depression, the personnel implicate on the stress exerted to them as a hindrance to quality performance of obligations (CDR Associates, 2007). Whenever an organization requires an employee to perform tasks at stringent criterion approaches, the likeliness to deliver positively and to the desired target fails (Schyns & Meindl, 2005). This organizational stressor shall implicate incapacity to the personnel and a state of insecurity to his occupation. Organizations comprise of different activities thus require different employees to perform the different roles for efficiency to prevail. Research depicts that roles are distinct and assigning employees to roles that they lack adequate knowledge in serves as a stressor and a breach to adequate performance. The findings are that the aspect implies on ambiguity of performances and shall result to conflicts, as the employees will lack the ability to deliver the desired obligations. Organizational personnel may be ineffective in performance because of the working environments. Therefore, poor working environment implies physical stress as the personnel continually feel the deprivation of the best working environment. Another source of stress emanates from interpersonal demands, which implicate on styles of leadership, individual personalities, and group pressures (Gill, 2010). The four factors of employee stressors implicate on... The research establishes that an organization will perform under perform positive and negative motivation factors accordingly. Organizations comprise of different activities thus require different employees to perform the different roles for efficiency to prevail. Research depicts that roles are distinct and assigning employees to roles that they lack adequate knowledge in serves as a stressor and a breach to adequate performance. The research findings establish a good team is that which performs obligations in accordance to desired goals of the organization. A prominent shall critically denote good communication amongst them and through it, coordination of performances prevail without unduly delays. According to research, the organization shall achieve the target obligations by establishing leadership as the most integral part of the organization, necessary to interconnect labor to the other factors of production. The research establishes on the consequences that organizations meet because of poor approaches to communication, teamwork, and finding solutions to prevailing problems. Findings are that the employees will react and create a conflicting environment whenever they perceive a conflicting issue in their job environment. Therefore, a good leader should initiate on positive approaches that would lead to the implementation of teamwork and less conflicting environment and this will result to the achievement o0f organizational goals.

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The Persuaders Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

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Strategic risks †thinking about them differently Essay Example for Free

Strategic risks — thinking about them differently Essay One of the most important aspects to put into consideration when taking up a project is project risk management. A project risk is an event / condition, which is uncertain that, upon it occurrence brings either a positive or a negative impact on the project. A positive manager should consider this as one of the ten knowledge areas where competence is highly regarded. Risk management is critical, especially to organizations working in multi-project environments and the maturity for risk is high (Loftus, 1999). A wide range of risks is apparent when working in projects involving construction among other engineering work. These risks are mostly attributed to government policy, diversity in stakeholders’ aspirations and the challenges of adding multiple projects. For a good risk management process, there must be a clear statement and understanding of roles and responsibilities, proper skills on technical analysis and the prevailing organizational factors should support the project. Project risk management involves identifying, assessing and prioritizing of risks: and thereafter putting resources to use in order to reduce, monitor and control those risks that could affect the project negatively and increase realizing of opportunities (Jaafari, 2001). This report seeks to outline the knowledge acquired on management of risk in projects among other basic knowledge gathered on management of projects. Discussion             All organizations exist for their own different purposes, and that of public engineering organizations in the construction business, the purpose is to deliver a service, which brings a beneficial result in the public/ stakeholders interest (Harrison, 2004). Decisions to pump resources into investments on capital infrastructure are prompted by needs that are meant to enhance the achievement of the major purpose. According to Flanagan and Norman (1993), the benefits of efficient risk management are evident especially in projects involving capital infrastructure because they are dynamic in nature and bring positive cost implications from the construction related decisions. Risk management should be taken as an intrinsic part of capital infrastructure investment decisions mainly because, as project, ventures get more elaborate, the role of risk management is exemplified (Kutsch Hall, 2010). Regarding this realization, some countries have enacted government policies o n constructors emphasizing on the need to incorporate risk management in capital infrastructure schemes (Uher Loosemore, 2004). Risk is therefore, in many occasions, viewed as a condition or event whose occurrence will have adverse effects on the project and may hinder the attainment of set objectives. Hence, risk management relates decisions to such probable harmful effects (Chapman et al, 2012). This philosophical approach to risk management enables the process to be broken down into four fundamental sub-processes (Culp, 2001). These involve identification, analysis, response and monitoring. The former step of identification is the most critical step because it has the biggest effect on decisions emanating from the process of risk management. Reviewing risk management, in his article, Williams (1995), notes that there is little structured work in publication about typical risks. According to Chapman (1998), as much as risk identification is critical on the risk assessment and response phases, very little empirical evidence is available at this early phase. The heavier task in risk management remains in the analysis and response to the risk, yet the reasoning stands that unless the risks are identified, they cannot be analyzed and responded to. For most engineers, the need to have a set out program is critical for it provides an umbrella under which all current projects fall so that an outcome can be delivered massively in general, and greater than the total sum of all others. A program is usually temporary, and flexible; created to direct and oversee the implementation of a set of related projects and activities for the deliverance of beneficial outcomes that relate to the organization’s strategic objectives. Several projects are undertaken under this umbrella. This explicitly differentiates between program management outcomes and project management outputs. However, there is a link between projects and strategy through the program. Risk management is becoming an increasingly important process due to external pressures in existence. However, good risk management is seen as a critical attribute of organizational success in the field of engineering. The assumption that programs are merely extensions of projects should cease to exist because many will tend to reflect program risk management to project risk management (Allan, 2008). Program management is a broad extension of the varied, yet related, projects. On projects, it is important to define one or more objective functions like capital expenditure and completion time to represent it to measure the probability of achieving the set targets. Risk management then goes on to model the project’s objectives against the projects variables like costs and the quantity of inputs. These variables are usually uncertain as time goes on, hence the uncertainty of a hundred percent achievement of the objectives set. The most ideal situation would be identifying and characterizing the variables in advance providing that they will remain unchanged by time. This would make it easy to estimate the possible risks and the consequent variance of the project’s objective(s). However, not all project variables can be identified as new variables might surface as the project goes on while the probability of occurrence of the initial variables may vary (Kerzner Saladis, 2009). The impacts of the initial variables, both positive and negative, may c hange too hence making risk management even more hard (Drummond, 1999). Certainty and uncertainty of realizing a project’s objectives are measurable, only ideally. The possibility of a project not breaking even could be considered as a representative of the whole project: and then used in turn to evaluate against the variable and try to reduce the risks involved. This becomes a basis for decision-making. Some projects may proceed normally in a stable environment, hence making the uncertainty high at the time it is conceptualized. Pro-active planning and making prudent decisions will see the uncertainty reduce (Royer, 2001). However, uncertainty in complex projects within a changing environment will not necessarily reduce/ diminish as time goes by Chapman (1998). It is necessary to keep on checking on the project’s variables and re-evaluating of the objective function’s status to facilitate adjustments in the project’s strategies. Uncertainty surrounds many parts of a project; hence early resolution of variables may not be poss ible always. Variables change over time leading to exposure to new threats and risks along the way. This fact should not be refuted and a lot of work is required in the planning evaluating phases, where most of the critical work is done. In spite of all the uncertainty and complexity surrounding risk management and project management, it is important to seek methods of improving the project’s base value (Drummond, 1999). Conceptualization, planning, and implementation of a project are complex process that requires management based on set strategic objectives, which vary from time to time. The objectives should be integrative and holistic in the sense that it caters for social, political, environmental, and community aspects (Sears et al, 2010). Traditionally, planning in project management should form the basis of planning, alongside other functions of project management including; human resource, time, scope, integration, quality and procurement. These should be the fundamental factors f consideration along each phase. A variety of guidebooks, protocols and codes of practice in the engineering field have been made available for use in risk management in project management. In the United Kingdom, the ‘Orange book’ is a framework that is set to offer guidance on basic risk management concepts and as a resource for developing risk management processes and implementing them I the public sec tor (Aritua et al 2011). It is also aimed at using a risk based decision-making on investment. There have been many more publications and publications aimed at dictating hoe risk management should look like. These guidelines have offered a basis upon which projects are appraised and their investment viability tested. This has enhanced the process and shifted its reception and perception from project risk management to a risk management strategic level (Melton, 2011). In engineering and construction professions, program management and project management came to existence due to the changing procurement environment (Cox et al 2006). In the United Kingdom, procurement of infrastructural assets was done in a sequential manner, which involved a clear differentiation in the project life cycle phases. Currently there are three major procurement systems. These systems are prime contracting, Design and Build procurement and Private Finance Initiative (Aritua et al 2011). These methods were because of the need to adopt integrative and collaborative project delivery methods. The procurement systems have features like framework agreements, the use of specifications that are output based, and more importantly, emphasis on the lifelong value of the structures (Shehu and Akintoye, 2009). The office of Government Commerce has facilitated the change in construction procurement in the public sector too. The agency’s main agenda is to ensure that policies ar e followed and enhancing promotion of the best performance practices. These systems ensure that the project undertaken is of high quality and regard set policies and guidelines. These sanctions in the public works and construction sector have acted as strategic risk management tools for they ensure quality assurance as well as proper quality management. Project management should incorporate the use of a strategy-based management approach. This will facilitate the integration of planning, risk management and decision-making hence ensuring real time real time realization of an optimum of the project’s strategic objective against its variables (Schmidt, 2009). The project’s promoters are not always the investors. Investors are not always actively involved in the management of the project, but invest resources into the project hoping to get dividends. The promoters’ objective, on the other hand, is to deliver a facility that will ensure a long term balanced and financially viable business entity. The project is therefore a compromise between the attainment of investors’ interests and that of the community (Pinto Morris, 2010). Project development should be based on a set of strategic objectives, which stamp the project as a business and entwining project decisions to strategic business decisions (Wearne, 198 9). Amid all risks, the project should be planned proactively regarding its variables and with a focus on the life cycle objective functions (Westland, 2007). All life cycle functions should be observed. These are: financial functions, customer satisfaction, and policy observance/ adherence to statutory concerns. Statutory concerns could be like those regarding projects adjacent to ecological systems or highly populated areas (Jha, 2011). Proactive planning of the project ensures real time minimization of risk. Effective risk management ensures that there is typical conceptualization of projects and their subsequent implementation using strategic objectives. It also ensures any further variables are assessed and managed accordingly to optimize the project’s strategic outcome, that which of a business entity (Heagney, 2011). Since projects are subjected to changes in objectives and variables due to external factors, it is important to incorporate a continuous risk management p rocess that involves continuous risk and uncertainty management process conducted in real time to bring value to the project manager. Strategies made from risk analysis are a basis upon which decision-making is based going forward. Objectives of the life cycle are the vessel for analysis. Ethical practices are important factors to put into consideration when taking up/ procuring a project (Ralf et al, 2014). There exists codes of conduct and these codes may vary depending on the government regulations from one country to another. These codes guide management of projects, operations and supervision of work, and the technical aspect of the project, which is building. Since the work done is of great importance, the designed code of conduct and ethical measures should be used as they set standards for the output as well as achieving business objectives with the community in regard (Haukur et al, 2011). Reflective assessment Group activities that included vast research and group projects were vital in broadening my understanding of the project management theory, which of great importance to establishing and undertaking successful projects. According to Turner (1993), scope management is what the project management theory regards. Scope management involves three fundamental issues; ensuring that an adequate amount of work has been done, avoiding doing any unnecessary work and ensuring that the work done fulfills the intended business purpose as stated. The recognition of the sequential state in which activities are undertaken helped us as a group in determining what had to be done at a particular time and by what particular persons as well as accounting for what had been spent on completed work in anticipation of costs that would be accrued in the next steps. I came to understand project management by likening it to production operations management. The crystallization of project management theory to oper ations management theories made it easy for us to recognize the resounding reliance on the transformational theory, which is production oriented. This is because project management involves injecting inputs on which transformational processes occur to bring the result, which is the output (Nell, 1998). Goals are set on the output, upon which a basis for control is placed: control systems are put in place to ensure activities align with achieving intended goals and putting improvement measures in place. This deep understanding of the theory has been enhanced mainly by the critical analysis and discourse that we have engaged ourselves with in the group to widen knowledge on the process. Relevant knowledge on management theories on planning, execution and control has expanded from these activities as well as project theories pertaining flow of production (which projects have been likened with) (Sulliman, 2014). These productions method include incorporating techniques such as lean prod uction and just in time (JIT) (Gilbereath, 1922). Ethical practices in governance for contemporary organizations are also a major factor for consideration (Ralf et al, 2014). Conclusively, exploration on the area of project management has instilled in me management skills, which are very critical in handling projects and managing every aspect in them including risk. References Allan, N., Davis, J., 2006. Strategic risks — thinking about them differently.Proceedings of ICE 159 Aritua B., Nigel J. Smith, Denis Bower (2011) International Journal of Project Management. United Kingdom: University of Leeds Chapman, C. B., Ward, S., Chapman, C. B. (2012). How to manage project opportunity and risk: Why uncertainty management can be a much better approach than risk management : the updated and re-titled 3rd ed of Project risk management, processes, insights and technoiques. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley. Cox, A., Ireland, P., Townsend, M. (2006). Managing in construction supply chains and markets: Reactive and proactive options for improving performance and relationship management. London: Thomas Telford. Culp, C. L. (2001). The Risk Management Process: Business Strategy and Tactics. New York: John Wiley Sons. Drummond H 1999. Are we any closer to the end Escalation and the case of Taurus? International Journal of Project Management Flanagan, R., Norman, G. (1996). Risk management and construction. Oxford [u.a.], Blackwell Science.Gilbreath, R. D. (1992). Managing construction contracts: Operational controls for commercial risks. New York: Wiley. Harrison, F. L., Lock, D. (2004). Advanced project management: A structured approach. Aldershot, England: Gower. Haukur, I. J., Ingason, H. T. (2013). Project ethics. Farnham, Surrey: Gower. Heagney, J. (2011). Fundamentals of Project Management. New York: AMACOM. Jaafari A. (2001) International Journal of Project Management. Sydney: University of Sydney Jha, K. N. (2011). Construction project management: Theory and practice. New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley. Kerzner, H., Saladis, F. P. (2009). Project management workbook and PMP/CAPM exam study guide. Hoboken, N.J: Wiley. Kutsh E. Hall M. (2010) International Journal Paper of Project Management. United Kingdom Loftus, J. (1999). Project management of multiple projects and contracts. London: Thomas Telford. Means, J. A., Adams, T. (2005). Facilitating the Project Lifecycle the Skills Tools to Accelerate Progress for Project Managers, Facilitators, and Six Sigma Project Teams. Hoboken, John Wiley Sons. http://www.123library.org/book_details/?id=9130. Melton, T. (2008). Real project planning developing a project delivery strategy. Amsterdam, Butterworth-Heinemann. Nell, E. J. (1998). The general theory of transformational growth: Keynes after Sraffa. New York: Cambridge University Press. Pinto, J. K., Morris, P. (2013). The wiley guide to project, program, and portfolio management. Hoboken, N.J: Wiley. Ralf M., Rodney T., Erling S.A, Jingting S., Oyvind K. (2014). Ethics, Trust, and Governance in Contemporary Organizations. Norway: Project Management Institute Royer, P. S. (2001). Project risk management: A proactive approach. Vienna, Virg: Management Concepts. Schmidt, T. (2009). Strategic project management made simple: Practical tools for leaders and teams. Hoboken, N.J: John Wiley Sons. Sears, S. K., Sears, G. A., Clough, R. H. (2010). Construction Project Management: A Practical Guide to Field Construction Management. New York: John Wiley Sons, Inc. Shehu, Z., Akintove, A., 2010. Major challenges to the successful implementationand practice of programme management in the constructionenvironment: a critical analysis. International Journal of Project Management Suliman Saleh Al Fredi (2014) International Journal of Science and Technology. Saudi Arabia: Al Qassim University Uher, T. E., Loosemore, M. (2004). Essentials of construction project management. Sydney: UNSW Press. Westland, J. (2007). The project management life cycle: a complete step-by-step methodology for initiating, planning, executing closing a project successfully. Williams, T., 1995. A classified bibliography of recent research relating to project risk management. European Journal of Operational Research Zhang Lianying et al (2012) Procedia Engineering. China: Tianjin University Source document

Organic Foods Pdf Essay Example for Free

Organic Foods Pdf Essay Abstract: During the last decade, consumers’ trust in food quality has decreased drastically, mainly because of growing ecological awareness and several food scandals (e. g. BSE, dioxins, bacterial contamination). It has been found that intensive conventional agriculture can introduce contaminants into the food chain. Consumers have started to look for safer and better controlled foods produced in more environmentally friendly, authentic and local systems. Organically produced foods are widely believed to satisfy the above demands, leading to lower environmental impacts and higher nutritive values. So far, studies have partly con? rmed this opinion. Organic crops contain fewer nitrates, nitrites and pesticide residues but, as a rule, more dry matter, vitamin C, phenolic compounds, essential amino acids and total sugars than conventional crops. Organic crops also contain statistically more mineral compounds and usually have better sensory and long-term storage qualities. However, there are also some negatives: plants cultivated in organic systems generally have 20% lower yields than conventionally produced crops. Several important problems need to be addressed in the coming years: environmental, bacterial and fungal contamination of organic crops and, the most essential issue, the impact of organic food consumption on animal and human health.  © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry Keywords: organic plant crops; quality; yield; composition; nutrition; vitamins; phenolics; sugars; nitrates; nitrites; pesticides; dry matter; health; sensory qualities. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE QUALITY OF ORGANIC PLANT FOOD PRODUCTS There are several important factors in?uencing the quality of food products that also are relevant to organically produced plant products. As illustrated in Fig. 1, the basic factors are the quality of the environment (abiotic factors) and the levels of pest and pathogen damage (biotic factors) to which plants are subjected. The main components of the environment (air, water, soil) have to be unpolluted if the crops obtained are expected to be of high nutritive quality. Many environmental contaminants enter the food production chain (soil–plant–animal–human organism), causing signi? cant problems in human health. 1 These contaminants include heavy metals, pesticide residues, nitrogen compounds, mycotoxins, chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), aromatic hydrocarbons (e. g. benzo[a]pyrene), plant growth stimulators (e. g. choline chloride), antibiotics, hormones, radioactive isotopes and plastic substances (monomers). Climate and weather are also important factors, as well as soil type and pH, soil cultivation, fertilisation and conditions of crop storage after harvest. ? Biotic factors can have also a signi? cant impact on crop quality. The main biotic factors are cultivar choice, bacterial and fungal contamination (disease) and pest damage. Cultivars of the same crop species can differ signi? cantly in nutritive quality. For example, the content of ? carotene in carrots (Daucus carota L. ) can vary between 7. 19 and 13. 84 mg g? 1 depending on the cultivar. 2 The main potential source of bacterial contamination in plant crops is animal manure used in organic farming. Contamination can take place via the roots or by water splashing onto the leaf surfaces. The most important organisms are several species of facultative anaerobic bacteria (Salmonella enterica, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Campylobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Clostridium botulinum, Mycobacterium paratuberculosis), protozoa (Toxoplasma gondii), tapeworms, viruses and prions. The results obtained so far are contradictory. Some studies indicate higher bacterial contamination in organic crops, while others show the opposite. 3 Mycotoxins (produced by fungi) originate mostly in the ? eld but can also develop during storage. Owing to the fact that fungicides are not used Correspondence to: Ewa Rembialkowska, Organic Foodstuffs Division, Faculty of Human Nutrition and Consumer Sciences, Warsaw Agricultural University, Nowoursynowska 159 C, PL-02-776 Warszawa, Poland E-mail: ewa [emailprotected] pl (Received 24 October 2006; revised version received 29 January 2007; accepted 8 February 2007). Figure 1. Factors in? uencing the quality of organic food products. in organic agriculture, some authors believe that organically produced foods will contain higher concentrations of mycotoxins. However, literature reviews show that mycotoxin concentrations are usually similar or reduced in organic compared with conventional products. 4 The most notorious mycotoxins are those produced by Fusarium species on cereal crops and maize. One of the reasons for lower Fusarium infections in organic grains could be the lower nitrogen concentrations in the tissues. 5 Insect pests also exert an in? uence on crop quality. Because of the ban on synthetic pesticides in organic agriculture, insects often damage fruits and vegetables, thereby diminishing their yield and harming their appearance. However, it is not clear whether they also reduce their nutritive quality. In contrast, there is evidence that organically grown plants contain more phytochemicals (which are natural insecticides) and are therefore more resistant to insect damage. 6 They can also play a positive role in human health, because several phytochemicals, being plant defence compounds, are connected with possible health bene? ts (Brandt K, oral presentation at QLIF Congress, Newcastle, 2005). Regulations on organic plant production allow actions that avoid many negative features of crop quality if they are consistently performed by producers. In order to ful? l these demands and to offer highquality products to consumers, an ef? cient and airtight certi? cation and control system must be implemented. In most countries such systems are quite ef?cient, though a rapid increase in the number of organic farms could lead to problems with a subsequent loosening of regulatory control. Therefore the main rule should be ‘trust is good, but control is better’. Moreover, the ? nal quality of organic food products is in? uenced by the effective implementation of 2758 the regulations on animal production and organic food processing. Only precise ful? lment of all these regulations can guarantee the best organic food quality (Fig. 1). IMPACT OF REGULATION ON ORGANIC PLANT PRODUCTION The regulations for organic plant production are clear and detailed. 7 The European Union (EU) regulation published in 19918 contains parts that relate directly to the composition of organic plant products. The most important aspects of this regulation include:7 †¢ a ban on genetic engineering and genetically modi? ed organisms (GMOs); †¢ lower nitrogen levels – a maximum limit for manure application of 170 kg N ha? 1 year? 1 ; †¢ a ban on synthetic pesticides; †¢ a ban on synthetic mineral fertilisers; †¢ a ban on growth promoters. Organic farmers must follow the above regulations if they want to pass the inspection procedure every year and receive a certi? cation document. If all requirements are complied with, several qualitative results can be expected. The most important conclusions from scienti? c comparisons are given below. CONTAMINANTS Nitrates and nitrites A large amount of data shows that the content of nitrates and nitrites is distinctly higher in conventionally cultivated than in organic crops. This is important, because nitrates can easily be converted into nitrites, which can cause a dangerous illness called methaemoglobinaemia in babies, infants and elderly people. 9 J Sci Food Agric 87:2757–2762 (2007) DOI: 10. 1002/jsfa Quality of organic plant products. Moreover, nitrites can react with amines to create nitrosamines, which are carcinogenic and mutagenic substances causing cancer of the digestive tract and leukaemia. 10 This process is dangerous not only for young children but also for adults of any age. Based on a large amount of data, the nitrate content of organic and conventional crops has been compared. On average, the nitrate content of organic crops was 49% that of conventional crops. 11 These and other data provide a basis for stating that organic methods lead to an approximately 50% reduction in the intake of nitrates and nitrites by humans. Pesticides Governments place legal limits, known as the Maximum Residue Level (MRL), on the level of pesticides that can be present in food. The MRL is usually estimated by testing individual pesticides on rats. Governments maintain that consumption of pesticides below the MRL is not a health risk. However, at lower levels, pesticides are known or suspected to cause many diseases and health problems, including cancer. 12 The main problem is that the MRL for pesticides is usually estimated by testing individual pesticides on rats for a relatively short period. Virtually nothing is known about the effects of consuming combinations of potentially hundreds of different pesticides over the course of a lifetime. We do not and cannot know explicitly what is causing what, so precaution is the main tool available to us (Howard V, oral presentation at QLIF Congress, Newcastle, 2005). The levels of pesticide residues found in organic crops are de? nitely lower than those present in conventional crops (Howard V, oral presentation at QLIF Congress, Newcastle, 2005). It can be expected that eating organic foods will result in lower pesticide levels in human milk and body tissues. There is some evidence con? rming this hypothesis. Researchers in France found that the level of pesticide residues in the milk of breast-feeding women decreased signi? cantly with an increase in the proportion of organic food in the daily diet (from 25 to 80%). 13 All available results show that the content of pesticide residues is signi? cantly lower in organic crops, which creates safer health conditions for consumers eating organically. Heavy metals Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, arsenic, mercury and zinc are introduced into the food chain from various sources, including industry, transportation, communal wastes and agriculture. For example, mineral phosphoric fertilisers used in conventional agriculture can introduce cadmium into crops, but the metal industry and transportation also cause cadmium contamination of soils and crops. Therefore there are no clear results in studies comparing the levels of J Sci Food Agric 87:2757–2762 (2007) DOI: 10. 1002/jsfa heavy metals in organic and conventional crops. Some data point to higher levels in conventional crops, while others show the opposite. 11 A problem to be solved is whether organic farming (composting, increasing the organic matter in soil, pH, etc. ) can diminish the intake of heavy metals by cultivated plants. DESIRABLE COMPOUNDS IN PLANTS Vitamins, phenolic compounds and mineral compounds The nutritive value of foods depends mainly on them having the appropriate content of compounds indispensable for proper functioning of the human organism. The content of phyto-compounds in plant foods is a topic of great interest in food science nowadays. A growing body of evidence indicates that secondary plant metabolites (phytochemicals) play a critical role in human health and may be nutritionally important. 14 There are two main theories explaining the factors in? uencing the levels of compounds in plants. 15 The carbon/nitrogen (C/N) balance theory states that, when nitrogen is easily available, the plant will ? rst make compounds with high nitrogen content, e. g. proteins for growth and nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, glucosinolates and non-protein amino acids such as the Allium ? avour precursors. When nitrogen availability is limiting for growth, the metabolism changes more towards carboncontaining compounds, e. g. starch, cellulose and non-nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites such as phenolics and terpenoids. The second, newer theory is the growth/ differentiation balance hypothesis (GDBH). 15 It states that the plant will always assess the resources available to it and optimise its investment in processes directed towards growth or differentiation. The term ‘differentiation’ encompasseses increased formation of defence compounds as well as accelerated maturation and seed development. The C/N balance theory is a special and typical case of the GBDH theory, since low nitrogen availability is the most common growth-limiting condition in natural ecosystems. 15 To verify the above theories, several authors investigated the content of some vitamins and phyto-compounds in organically and conventionally produced crops. In order to summarise different data, for each organic–conventional comparison a % difference was calculated: [(organic ? conventional)/conventional] ? 100 The collected data for several desirable components are presented in Table 1. The role of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in the human organism is basic for several metabolic functions, mainly because it is one of the major cellular direct antioxidants (along with glutathione) and is a 2759 E Rembialkowska Table 1. Contents of desirable components in organic crops relative to those in conventional crops Component Vitamin C Phenolic compounds Iron Magnesium Phosphorus Mean % difference +28. 7 +119. 3 +21. 1 +29. 3 +13. 6 Range (%) ? 38 to +135. 5 ? 56. 6 to +734. 2 ? 73 to +240 ? 35 to +1206 ? 44 to +240 Number of studies 21 15 16 17 18 production and reduces carbohydrate production. Moreover, the increased protein produced in response to high nitrogen levels contains lower amounts of certain essential amino acids such as lysine and therefore has a lower quality with respect to human nutrition. Source: Ref. 17 and author’s own calculations. cofactor for certain enzymes. Vitamin C also supports detoxication and resistance of the human organism. The higher content of vitamin C in organic crops is bene? cial to health, because vitamin C inhibits the in situ formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines, thus diminishing the negative impact of nitrates on the human organism. 10 Therefore organic vegetables can play an important anticarcinogenic role. Plant-based phenolic metabolites are particularly interesting because of their potential antioxidant activity and medical properties, including anticarcinogenic activity. 15 According to Benbrook,16 organic farming has elevated antioxidant levels in about 85% of the cases studied to date and, on average, levels are about 30% higher compared with foods grown conventionally. Mineral compounds containing iron, magnesium and phosphorus are fundamental for human health. According to Worthington,17 the higher mineral content in organic crops may be connected with the higher abundance of micro-organisms in organically managed soil. These micro-organisms produce many compounds that help plants to combine with soil minerals and make them more available to plant roots. Unfortunately, there have been only a few studies on other vitamins such as ? -carotene, B1 and B2 and the results are contradictory. Therefore no general conclusions can be drawn about these compounds. Total sugars A higher total sugar content in plant crops not only improves their taste but is also an important component of their technological quality, e. g. in the case of sugar beet. Studies clearly indicate a higher content of total sugars, mainly sucrose, in organically produced vegetables and fruits such as carrots, sugar beet, red beetroot, potatoes, spinach, Savoy cabbage, cherries, redcurrants and apples. 11,18 Proteins Several studies analysed in review papers11 show that the quantity of crude protein is lower in organic than in conventional crops but that the quality is better as measured by essential amino acid content. According to Worthington,17 nitrogen from any kind of fertiliser affects the quantity and quality of protein produced by plants. Provision of a large amount of nitrogen to a plant increases protein 2760 SENSORY QUALITY OF ORGANIC FOODS Many studies have proved quite unequivocally that vegetables and fruits from organic farms have a better taste and smell. This was found for carrots and potatoes, celery and red beetroot, head cabbage and tomatoes as well as for apples, cherries and redcurrants. 11 Organic fruits contained more total sugars, which probably in?uenced the better taste perception by consumers. Better taste and smell have also been found for bread made from organic grain, which also had better crumb elasticity. 6 Interesting studies have been conducted on animal food preference in which animals were given organic or conventional fodder. Most studies have proved a clear animal preference for foods produced organically; such studies have been conducted on rats, mice, hens and rabbits. 19 Preference for organic fodder was also observed in cases where, according to chemical analyses, both organic and conventional fodder ful? lled all physiological needs of the animals tested. 20 The reason for this was probably the difference in taste between organic and conventional fodder. STORAGE QUALITY OF ORGANIC PLANT CROPS Transpiration losses and decay processes, as well as changes in nutritive value, normally take place during the storage period of potatoes and other vegetables. However, these changes can proceed at different rates and to differing degrees. Most of the available data indicate that the decay process is slower in organic crops, which therefore show better storage quality after the winter period. A review study based on many sources21 concluded that the storage quality of vegetables and fruits was better in the case of plants grown on organic farms (Table 2). The better storage quality of organic crops Table 2. Storage losses of carrots, potatoes and various fruits and vegetables from organic (ORG) and conventional (CONV) farmsa Carrots Potatoes Fruits and vegetables ORG CONV ORG CONV ORG CONV Number of quoted studies Storage loss (% of initial mass) a 15 33 15 40 22 22 22 30 53 28 53 38 Average data based on literature review. 21 J Sci Food Agric 87:2757–2762 (2007) DOI: 10. 1002/jsfa Quality of organic plant products Table 3. Positive nutritive attributes of organic plant products No. 1 2 3 4 5 Attribute Organic crops contain fewer nitrates, nitrites and pesticide residues than conventional crops. There is no clear difference in the content of heavy metals between organic and conventional crops Organic plant products contain, as a rule, more dry matter, vitamin C, phenolic compounds, essential amino acids and total sugars. However, the level of ? -carotene is often higher in conventional plant products Organic plant products contain statistically more iron, magnesium and phosphorus. They also tend to contain more chromium, iodine, molybdenum, selenium, calcium, boron, manganese, copper, potassium, sodium, vanadium and zinc Organic plant products usually have better sensory quality. They have a clearer smell and taste and are sweeter and more compact because of their higher dry matter content Preference for organic products is typical not only for humans but also for animals such as rats, rabbits and hens. This preference was also observed in cases where, according to chemical analyses, both organic and conventional fodder ful? lled all physiological needs of the animals tested Vegetables and fruits from organic production maintain better quality during winter storage, showing lower mass losses due to transpiration, decay and decomposition processes. A possible reason for this is their higher content of dry matter, minerals, sugars and other bioactive compounds 6 Table 4. Negative and unclear aspects of organic plant products No. 1 Negative aspect Plants cultivated in organic systems have, as a rule, signi?cantly (on average 20%) lower yields than conventionally produced crops. This increases their price and creates for many consumers a barrier to buying organic foods Unclear aspect Environmental contamination (heavy metals, PCBs, dioxins, aromatic hydrocarbons) can be similar in organic and conventional crops, because the impact of industrial, transport and communal sources is similar on organic and conventional farms located in the same area Bacterial (mainly Salmonella and Campylobacter) Contamination can sometimes be higher in organic produce, but scienti?c evidence of this is still not clear Mycotoxins can contaminate both organic and conventional foods, but scienti? c data are contradictory The impact of organic food consumption on human health and wellbeing remains essentially unknown in spite of some positive indications, so the subject needs further study 2 3 4 was probably associated with a higher content of dry matter in their ? esh, resulting in less extensive decay and decomposition. Lower losses in organic production have not only nutritive but also economic bene? ts. In conventional systems, high yields are produced but signi?cant losses during storage reduce the economic bene? ts. CONCLUSIONS Recent food crises (BSE, foot and mouth disease, food contamination by dioxins, toxic fungi, Salmonella and Campylobacter bacteria) have caused consumers to look for more authentic and safer foods. Organic food production is widely recognised as being more friendly to the environment, more controlled and better for animal welfare. On the other hand, many data indicate that a lot of food contaminants have their source in conventional methods of agriculture, animal production and food processing. The negative effect of the continuing enthusiastic use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides in agriculture is potentially huge. Therefore safer methods of agricultural production, mostly organic methods, are very important. Studies conducted in various countries have indicated several positive attributes of organic plant J Sci Food Agric 87:2757–2762 (2007) DOI: 10. 1002/jsfa products (Table 3) but also a few negative and unclear aspects (Table 4). To summarise the positives, organic food should be recommended for all, but especially for young babies, pregnant and breast-feeding women, elderly and chronically ill people and vegetarians. The last group obviously consumes a lot of vegetables, which can contain too high levels of carcinogenic substances when produced conventionally. The lower content of nitrates and higher content of phenolic compounds and vitamin C in organic crops are especially important for health. Nitrates are easily converted in the digestive tract into poisonous nitrites, which are the precursors of carcinogenic nitrosamines. This process is hampered by vitamin C, and carcinogenesis is retarded by phenolic compounds and other dietary phytochemicals present at higher levels in organically produced crops. Therefore organic vegetables can play an important anticarcinogenic role. REFERENCES 1 Rembialkowska E, Organic agriculture and food quality, in Ecological Agriculture and Rural Development in Central and Eastern European Countries, Vol. 44 of NATO Science Series, ed. by Filho WL. IOS Press, Amsterdam, pp. 185–204 (2004). 2761 E Rembialkowska ? ? 2 Schuphan W, Biochemische Sortenprufung an Gartenmohren ? ? als neuzeitliche Grundlage fur planvolle Zuchtungsarbeit. Z? chter 2:25–43 (1942). U 3 Franz E, van Bruggen AHC and Semenov AM, Risk-analysis of human pathogen spread in the vegetable industry: a comparison between organic and conventional production chains, in Bayesian Statistics and Quality Modelling in the AgroFood Production Chain, ed. by van Boekel MAJS, Stein A and van Bruggen AHC. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, pp. 81–94 (2004). 4 FAO, Food Safety as Affected by Organic Farming (Twentysecond FAO Regional Conference for Europe). [Online]. (2000). Available: www. fao. org/docrep/meeting/x4983. htm. 5 Van Bruggen AHC and Termorshuizen AJ, Integrated approaches to root disease management in organic farming systems. Aust Plant Pathol 32:141–156 (2003). 6 Bjorn G and Fruekilde AM, Cepa onions (Allium cepa L) grown conventionally and organically – similarities and differences. Gron Viden 153:1–6 (2003). (in Danish). 7 Hansen B, Alroe HF, Kristensen ES and Wier M, Assessment of food safety in organic farming. DARCOF Working Paper 52 (2002). 8 EU, Council Regulation No. 2092/91 of 24 June 1991 on organic production of agricultural products and indications referring thereto on agricultural products and foodstuffs. OJL 198, 22. 7 P. 1 (1991). ? 9 Szponar L and Kierzkowska E, Azotany i azotyny w srodowisku oraz ich wplyw na zdrowie czlowieka. Post Hig Med Do? w s 44:327–350 (1990). 10 Mirvish SS, Vitamin C inhibition of N-nitroso compounds formation. Am J Clin Nutr 57:598–599 (1993). 11 Rembialkowska E, Wholesomeness and Sensory Quality of Potatoes and Selected Vegetables from the Organic Farms. Fundacja ? Rozwoj SGGW, Warszawa (2000). 12 BMA, The BMA Guide to Pesticides, Chemicals and Health. Report of Science and Education. British Medical Association, London (1992). 13 Aubert C, Pollution du lait maternel, une enquete de terre vivante. Quatre Saisons Jardinage 42:33–39 (1987). 14 Lundeg? rdh B and M?rtensson A, Organically produced plant a a foods – evidence of health bene? ts. Acta Agric Scand B 53:3–15 (2003). 15 Brandt K and Molgaard JP, Organic agriculture: does it enhance or reduce the nutritional value of plant foods? J Sci Food Agric 81:924–931 (2001). 16 Benbrook CM, Elevating Antioxidant Levels in Food through Organic Farming and Food Processing. An Organic Center of Science Review. Organic Center for Education and Promotion (2005). 17 Worthington V, Nutritional quality of organic versus conventional fruits, vegetables, and grains. J Alternative Compl Med 7:161–173 (2001). 18 Zadoks JC, Development of Farming Systems. Pudoc, Wageningen (1989). 19 Williams CM, Nutritional quality of organic food: shades of grey or shades of green? Proc Nutr Soc 61:19–24 (2002). ? 20 Woese K, Lange D, Boess Ch and Bogl KW, A comparison of organically and conventionally grown foods – results of a review of the relevant literature. J Sci Food Agric 74:281–293 (1997). 21 Bulling W, Qualit? tsvergleich von ‘biologisch’ und ‘konventionell’ a erzeugten Feldfruchten. Regierungsprasidium, Stuttgart (1987). 2762 J Sci Food Agric 87:2757–2762 (2007) DOI: 10. 1002/jsfa.

Political Institutions and Economic Volatility

Political Institutions and Economic Volatility Most of the existing literature about political institutions and economic volatility focus on developed countries or countries including both developed countries (e.g., Denizer et al., 2002; Mobarak, 2005; Debrun et al., 2008; Klomp and Haan, 2009; Perira and Vladimir, 2011). These papers always examine the impact of political institutions on economic volatility from one or two aspects, seldom do they analyze this relationship in a more broad way. The existing papers study the relationship between political institutions and economic volatility from different dimensions. Many of these studies provided empirical evidence that democratic political institutions generate less volatile growth. The paper written by Rodrik (1997) shows democratic countries are less volatile than nondemocratic regimes. This opinion is supported by a number of studies. Mobarak (2005), Quinn and Woolley (1996, 2001), Klomp and de Haan (2009) and Cavallo and Cavallo (2010) report a strong negative correlation between democracy and economic volatility, strengthening democratic institutions can eliminate the negative effects of financial crisis and decrease output volatility. Democratic institutions may reduce macroeconomic volatility in several ways. First, a democratic institution which highly respects individual interest will implement policy to keep countries’ stability, since most of people prefer a stable environment. Politicians in democratic political institutions have the opportunity of future replacement. The future replacement of these politicians will be affected by median voter who would prefer a more stable economy. To get the support of these voters, politicians in democratic institutions always avoid policies with high risk (Black 1948; Downs, 1957). Second, democratic political institutions decentralize political power, which keep policy’s stability and decrease its variance. In Partha and Malik’s (2010) view, the degree of democracy in a country is determined by the proportion of the population who are in the process of political decision making. In a perfect democracy each individual has right to give their opinion in the political process and political institutions will not only represent a particular group’s interest. They also find a high correlation between disparity in political regimes across countries and differences in volatility. Thus, the decentralization of political power inherent to democratic political systems can effectively reduce the policy uncertainty which will lead to smaller economic volatility. This paper is closely related to cross-country empirical studies that examine the link between political governance –related variables and economic growth volatility. Acemoglu et al. (2003) think that a society where elites and politicians are effectively constrained will experience less infighting between various political groups to take control of the state and to pursue more sustainable policies. In their opinion, if a country has less executive constraints, politicians and elites will find various ways of getting greater political power to increase their own interest. This type of infighting between different political groups for the political power will increase political and economic turbulence. There are several papers argue that executive constraints can reduce economic growth volatility due to their decentralization function. Henisz (2000) shows that there is positive relationship between the number of politicians with independent veto power over policy changes and the possibility of large shifts in policies which may increase the economic volatility. Nooruddin (2003) suggests that effective constraints on politicians and elites, for example independence of the executive from the legislature, minority parliamentary government, and coalition government, can significantly reduce the economic growth volatility. It has been shown that the ability of governments to handle economic crisis depends on the quality of institutions (Rodrik (2000); Arin et al. (2011)). Cariolle (2014) says one important reason of the occurrence of 2008 worldwide financial crisis is poor transparency and lack of accountability mechanisms in private and public fund management. The occurrence and consequences of this crisis can be seen an illustration of the complex link between governance quality and output fluctuations. As an important part of institution quality and a variable of the World Governance Index, corruption has been discussed in some papers which examine its effect on economic volatility. Corruption can be viewed holistically as an institutional arrangement arising from the lack of inappropriateness, or ineffectiveness of formal institutions (Andvig, 2006; Williamson, 2009). Evrensel (2010) analyzes the corruption-growth volatility relationship and find that high corruption increase economic volatility. Attiya et al. (2011) argued that high corruption and low institutional quality lead to more fluctuations in the budget deficit which may increase the level and volatility of inflation. Another dimension of political institutions that some research analysis is the stability of the regime. Rodrik(1999) shows that external conflicts make economic growth more volatile. In addition, Asteriou and Price (2001) conclude that there is a strong positive relationship between political instability, measured by various political violence indicators, and macroeconomic volatility. Klomp and Haan (2009) use a four-factor model which includes â€Å"aggression†, â€Å"protest†, â€Å"regime instability† and â€Å"government instability† measure the political instability. Their results show that all four factors of political instability are positively related to growth volatility, but only regime instability and government instability have a significant effect. There are several reasons why political instability may affect economic volatility. Violent challenges may increase economic volatility because they damage or destroy physical capital, divert resources from economically productive activities and discourages such activities by the uncertainty they generate (Jong-A-Pin 2009). Ari and Francisco (2006) say that countries with political instability are often sensitive to political shocks, resulting in discontinuous monetary and fiscal policies and higher inflation volatility. From the studies discussed above, I can see that most of them study the relationship between political institutions and economic volatility in developed countries and they examine the impact of political institution from one particular aspect. This work tries to fill the gap about the impact of political institutions on economic volatility in developing countries. Compare with previous studies, this thesis analyze the relationship between political institutions and economic volatility in a more broad way by focusing three dimensions of political institutions. This paper also compares the results between different regions. The hypotheses are to see whether democracy, executive constraints are negatively related to economic volatility and corruption, internal conflicts are positively related to economic volatility.

Math Research Paper -- Essays Papers

Math Research Paper Since the 1980’s calculator use in the classroom has been a huge controversy between educators (Golden, 2000). It is becoming increasingly common to use calculators in the classroom on a regular basis. Some states allow students to use calculators on standardized tests and as part of the regular curriculum (Dion, 2001). Because we live in such a technologically changing world, hand held calculators have been far surpassed and can be purchased for as low as $4.00 each. This low price however, has not swayed the many people that believe calculators are not appropriate in the classroom. These critics argue that calculators take away student’s basic knowledge of mathematics, prevent children from truly understanding mathematical concepts, avert their minds from learning logical reasoning, and give students a false sense of confidence about their mathematical ability (Education World, 2002). â€Å"Kids get to use calculators as a substitute for practice, and they never really understand arithmetic,† says Sandy Stotsky, a teacher in Massachusetts, one of the few states that have taken a back-to-basics approach states (Golden, 2000). Critics also believe that calculators work against learning basic mathematics, and do not allow children to appreciate the nature of math. They believe it takes the thinking out of mathematics (Stoll, 1999). Another argument that is brought up is that low-income and minority elementary school students are more likely to use calculators than middle-income which elementary school children. They are also more likely to score lower on standardized tests. â€Å"At Hazelwood Elementary, where nearly half of the students are black and almost all qualify for subsidized school lunches, 7... ... use in elementary classrooms. Teaching Children Mathematics, 1 (5), 300-304. Education World. (2002). Educators battle over calculator use: Both sides claim casualties. Retrieved February, 22, 2003, from http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr072.shtml. Golden, D. (2000). Calculators may be the wrong answer as a 'digital divide' widens in schools. Maple River Education Coalition. Retrieved February, 22, 2003, from http://www.mredcopac.org/update62.htm. Reys, B., Arbaugh, F., Joyner, J. (2001). Clearing up the Confusion over Calculator Use In Grades K-5. Teaching Children Mathematics, 8 (2), 90-95. Reys, R., Lindquist, M., Lambdin, D., Smith, N., Suydan, M. (2003). Helping children learn mathematics (6th ed.). United States of America: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Stoll, C. (1999). High tech heretic. New York: Doubleday.

Christian Sybolism in Beowulf Essay -- Christianity epic Poem Beowulf

Christian Sybolism in Beowulf Within the poem Beowulf, the poet utilizes the Christian religion to symbolize the elements of good and evil and Heaven and Hell. Beowulf is the oldest known English epic poem. The manuscripts date back to about 1000 A.D., when two scribes wrote it down for posterity. The poem was handed down from the Anglo-Saxon period, and through the retelling of the poem, it changed a little each time. The poem creates an oral depiction of an epic hero who strived to fight against the forces of evil. There really was a â€Å"historical† Beowulf who helped the Geats and Danes fight off pirates, but he was neither King of the Geats nor Danish hero at any time. In fact, he was not considered a man of any extraordinary qualities, much different than the Beowulf in the poem. Christianity influenced much of the literature during this period of time. Although the poem never mentions Christ, the poet did use various characters and references to the Old Testament. The poet uses them sparing ly, but the references to biblical events and characters are clearly evident. Protected by God, King Hrothgar became a mighty ruler over the lands surrounding Herot. When Grendel, an epitome of sin, comes into the poem, Hrothgar was probably less worried about himself, and more worried about his people. He was not â€Å"an old pathetic king, incapable of protecting his people†(Bloom 47). He was described as being a famous hero because of his goodness and great wisdom. Made of earthen walls covered by gold and ivory, Herot’s beauty and reverence reigned throughout the land. â€Å"Herot, the great hall becomes an emblem for God’s word itself †(Chickering 271). Fire has and probably always will be a representation of evil. I... ..., â€Å"[Beowulf’s] sacrificial death is not seen as tragic, but as the fitting end of a good ( some would say â€Å"too good†) hero’s life† (Bolton 1). Bibliography: â€Å"Beowulf†. Elements in Literature. Holt, Rhinehart, and Winston. Harcourt Brace and Company, 1997. Bloom, Harold. â€Å"Beowulf.† Bloom’s Reviews: Beowulf. Broomall, PA: Chelsea House Publishers, 1999. 46-47. Bolton, W.F., The New History of Literature: The Middle Ages. New York: Peter Bedrick Books, 1986. Chickering Jr., Harold D. Beowulf: A Dual Language Edition. New York: Doubleday, 1977, 267-277 Gardner, John. Grendel. New York: Random House, Inc., 1971. Price, Martin, et al. The Oxford Anthology of English Literature. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. 24-26. The Student Bible. New International Version. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1996.

Samsung Company

Introduction to Business Samsung Company From a small export business created in Daegu, Korea, Samsung has grown and become one of the world’s leader in the electronics industry. The main specialization of Samsung is digital appliances and media, semiconductors, memory and system integration. The market segmentation of Samsung is giving them a firm commercial advantage. Samsung is segmented according to demographic segmentation, that consists of dividing the market in groups based on different criteria.The most important criterias used by this company is age, income and occupation. Using this criteria they tend to become a leader in technology market as they offer products for each group of customers. Also they are using psychographic segmentation that is the science used to better understand consumers, according to their lifestyle, personality and the main values they have.Another process used by this company is Positive market segmentation that consists of studying the rival goods that are demanded in the market and to compare the quality and price, to understand what the customers need and what products could they insert in the market to satisfy the customer and to increase the confidence of customers in the company. This strategy is one of the strengths of the company as they study the activity of Apple Corporation and other rivals.Using the collected datas they know better what kind of products could they offer to different groups of consumers. The motto of the company is â€Å"Inspire the World, Create the Future†, from it we can deduce that the main purpose for them is to satisfy the customers desires and to achieve a high revenue. Another strength that keeps Samsung in the top world’s brands is the fact that Samsung is totally dedicated to give their customers a wealth of opportunities to rich their full potential. The globalization process for Samsung’s technology businesses started in the early 1980s.So they became a part o f The digital age that has brought new changes and opportunities to global business and Samsung has responded with competitive products and constant innovation. This can be proved by studying the worldwide demand for different goods. For example the worldwide demand for mobile phones was staggering 1. 5 billions in 2011, Samsung accounted for 330 million of those units. This proves the strength of the company as a worldwide leader for different goods as notebooks, mobile phones or digital cameras.Investing directly in activity that spurs economic growth helps Samsung to achieve greater income potential and maintain Samsung brand as one of the most popular in the world. Their position in the market gives them the opportunity to achieve new heights, one of them is their plan of reaching $400 billion in revenue and become one of the world’s top five brands by 2020. Samsung’s Chairman Lee considers that Globalization is the key for future growth, using this idea he created a new strategy to accelerate Samsung’s globalization through developing a pool of global managers as strategic advisors for Samsung Group.Samsung strategies varies for each trade market. In India their strategy is to be a nationwide distributor and retail presence in the domestic consumer durables market. Also they use different advertising tactics to promote their products, for example Samsung has been associated with the Lakme India Fashion Week for its Mobile Phones. The company used this platform in 2005 to launch a new version of mobile phone the D-500, that became after World’s best mobile phone in the Indiam market.Another strategy is the strategic alliances between Samsung and other worldwide recognized organisations, for example in 2007, Samsung established a joint venture with Limo for developing a Linux platform, also they Co-developed for handsets and DVB-H standardization solutions with Nokia. Samsung is also investing money in different companies that co uld help them to provide better technology to consumers, for example investments in shares of US based firm specializing in HDD technology (Integral Peripherals), or investments in operator of telecomunications systems in Chile (Entel).Other strengths of Samsung are the design, effective advertisement and market communication, an actively coming out with newer models and branding as Samsung is ranked 17th among global companies in 2011. A strong point for Samsung is that consists from various business units, the most important is Electronic Industry the one that brings the most revenue for the group (65% in 2011), Engineering and Heavy Industry and Financial Services.When Samsung Electronics rushed its first smartphone to market as a response to the debut of the Apple iPhone, some customers burned the product on the streets or hammered in to the bits in public displays of disaffection. Complaints ranged from dropped calls and heavy touchscreen to frequent auto-rebooting and a lack o f applications. This is weakness for Samsung that they can not keep up with the innovations from Apple and other rivals, even if they try to show the opposite.The biggest threat for Samsung is the global patent battle, between them and Apple,as Apple considers that Samsung copied its iPad and iPhone. Another threat is the fact that Samsung created a big variety of phones into the market so that could lead to a decrease in the demand for new goods in future. Samsung has a different market approach as it offers to customers a much bigger diversity of products. As their previous accomplishments, they look further to explore and develop new activities, as health, medicine, biotechnology. References 1.Kim Youngsoo, 1997, â€Å"Technological Capabilities and Samsung Electronics† 2. Bloom Martin, 1992, „Technological Changes in the Korean Electronics Industryâ€Å" 3. Yu Sengjae, 1989, „Korean Electronics Enterprises : Growth and Strategiesâ€Å" 4. Samsung Global Stra tegy – http://sgsg. samsung. com/Introducing_Samsung_GSG_final. pdf 5. Samsung Business Review -http://www. samsung. com/uk/aboutsamsung/corporateprofile/download/2011_4_Business_Overview. pdf 6. Samsung Financial Highlights – http://www. samsung. com/hk_en/aboutsamsung/corporateprofile/ourperformance/samsungprofile. html

Directed Writing: Report on Water Pollution Essay

Water is one of human beings most important basic needs. Human can survive without food for couples of days but somehow going without water, human will not survive. Using safe, clean, water is a basic human right. Mother Nature gifts us free water but selfish human beings keeps polluting the water with actions such as chemical leaks, littering into water, disposing industrial waste and also ship waste into the water. Water pollution may affects a lots of things in our daily life. Here in this little village outside the town is one of the victim that suffered a lots of water pollutions. Recently, we received a complaint letter from the villagers that claimed that their daily life is difficult to go on with heavily polluted water supply. We checked out at the village water supply locations and found some shocking discoveries. The rivers are heavily polluted with litters such as plastic bags, bottles, paper cups, straws, unused furniture, and many more rubbishes. The river water is so heavily polluted that the water had turn into brown and discolored. The rubbish that was threw into the river became the major factor that pollute the water. The water supply in the village is not suitable to use, neither drink nor carry out daily tasks. The villagers doesn’t have enough supply of clean water after using the clean water to cook and drink, they needed clean water to carry out daily tasks such as bath, clothes washing, and housework. The dirty water in the village might be the major causes of illness such as diarrhea. The water is not clean and safe enough to drink that maybe the water still carries bacteria or even viruses. Other than that, the clogged drains and water stagnant in the village will provide mosquitoes a perfect environment for its breeding. Some dangerous mosquito species may carry virus that capability to kill a person by just a sting. Mosquitoes such as Aedes carries Dengue virus that maybe causes Dengue Fever. People that have a strong and healthy body maybe survive the sting but those people with weak immunity system may die under the Dengue Fever. Dengue Fever kills at least 20 villagers last year. The selfishness and laziness of the villagers shows their irresponsibility attitude to the village. The villagers will throw the rubbish everywhere especially dump area that closes with water supply. This causes a lots of bacteria breed from the rubbish dump site that formed an unhealthy living environment. These pollutions will also endanger the aquatic living things that live under the water. If these living things were being sold in the market or ate into human body, what harm or diseases will bring to these innocent victims? As a first step to solve the water pollution, the most important thing is the local authorities must take action. The authorities such as government may consider to enforcing laws on water pollution. Local authorities of the village should form a team or committee that control and supervise the water pollution, they can caught and send those who polluter the water to police officers or higher authorities. Once they form a committee, the villagers will not to litter into the river. Whoever litters into the river should be punish heavily either by prisoning, whipping, or fine. After these actions of authorities taken, they people will be aware, not to do it again. Other than that, the government should educate the villagers on the importance of water and ways to dispose unused rubbish or chemical waste correctly. The committee that responsible to the village cleanliness should also provide more rubbish bins and also recycle stations. The government can also launch camp or seminar that related to the important of water and ways to prevent water pollution. Local authorities can try to improve the water supply by launching clean-up activities. The villagers must be responsible to their own village. Hence, the committee should require the villagers to get involve to the clean-up activities for compulsory. Action will be taken to the family that doesn’t involve in the activities. To clean up a heavily polluted river need a long time and a couple lots of procedure for example picking up the floating rubbish, cleaning up the rubbish that sink into the river bed. All this procedure needs really long time to purified a polluted river. â€Å"Teamwork divides the tasks and multiple the success.† If the villagers of the village could be  cooperative and do their job together, it will really speed up the recovery of the river. Besides than the government, the villagers also should give fully co-operations that needed by the village. Every individuals also responsible to their village. Do not throw litter or harmful substances into the river or lakes. Do your part by picking up the litters and throw them in to the rubbish bin. Villagers also should promote the ways to prevent water pollution to relatives and friends so that they can also advocate this concept. In addition, if you saw any villager that litter or polluting the river, should report or contact the appropriate authorities so that they can take actions. Villagers also should avoid of water wastage. Ensure that there are no drips or leakages in the house plumbing. Saving water will ultimately lead to the reduction of water that flows into the sewage treatment. As for daily tasks, use laundry detergents that have low levels of phosphate only as phosphate is a major water pollutant that will heavily affect the water supply when the used water flowed back to the river. As a conclusion, water is essential for us. Thus, we must appreciate it because Mother Nature gifted us with water for free. We show our thankful to Mother Nature by not polluting it and keep it clean at all time. These water will be used by our next generations in near future. Hence, for their health, we should start to maintain these good habits and passing this habits to our next generation.